UC-II

Whole blueberry powder modulates the growth and metastasis of MDA-MB-231 triple negative breast tumors in nude mice.

Previous studies in our laboratory demonstrated that blueberry (BB) extract exhibited antitumor activity against MDA-MB-231 triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells and decreased metastatic potential in vitro. The current study tested 2 doses of whole BB powder, 5 and 10% (wt:wt) in the diet, against MDA-MB-231 tumor growth in female nude mice. In this study, tumor volume was 75% lower in mice fed the 5% BB diet and 60% lower in mice fed the 10% BB diet than in control mice (P ≤ 0.05). Tumor cell proliferation (Ki-67) was lower in the 5 and 10% BB-fed mice and cell death (Caspase 3) was greater in the 10% BB-fed mice compared to control mice (P ≤ 0.05). Gene analysis of tumor tissues from the 5% BB-fed mice revealed significantly altered expression of genes important to inflammation, cancer, and metastasis, specifically, Wnt signaling, thrombospondin-2, IL-13, and IFN. To confirm effects on Wnt signaling, analysis of tumor tissues from 5% BB-fed mice revealed lower -catenin expression and glycogen synthase kinase-3 phosphorylation with greater expression of the-catenin inhibitory protein adenomatous polyposis coli compared to controls. A second study tested the ability of the 5% BB diet to inhibit MDA-MB-231-luc-D3H2LN metastasis in vivo. In this study, 5% BB-fed mice developed 70% fewer liver metastases (P = 0.04) and 25% fewer lymph node metastases (P = 0.09) compared to control mice. This study demonstrates the oral antitumor and metastasis activity of whole BB powder against TNBC in mice.

Nutr. 2011 Oct;141(10):1805-12

An evaluation of the effect of a topical product containing C-xyloside and blueberry extract on the appearance of type II diabetic skin.

BACKGROUND: Diabetes is a multisystem disease caused by the presence of chronic hyperglycemia, which leads to increased oxidative stress. Many of the changes observed in type II diabetic patients can be traced to the increased production of advanced glycation end products, also known as AGEs. AGEs are produced as a result of a nonenzymatic reaction with glucose interacting with proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. AGEs are also present in normal skin with advancing age and contribute to the senescence of many body organs, including the skin. AIMS: This research evaluated the effect of a topical product formulation containing blueberry extract, an AGE inhibitor, and C-xyloside, a GAG synthesis stimulator, applied twice daily on the hand, arm, and facial skin of 20 type II diabetic females. Diabetic skin was chosen for evaluation because AGEs are found in increased concentration in diabetic skin, representing a model for accelerated aging. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This single-center study enrolled 20 female type II diabetics aged 55+ years with mild to moderate fine lines, wrinkles, and hyperpigmentation on the face and hands. Subjects used the study product on their face, hand, and inner forearm twice daily for 12 weeks. Ordinal grading on a 4-point scale (0 = none, 1 = mild, 2 =moderate, 3 = severe) of facial fine lines, wrinkles, firmness, radiance, skin tone, skin smoothness, hyperpigmentation, creping, density, sagging, and overall appearance was performed by the investigator at baseline, week 4, week 8, and week 12. Tolerability, subject assessments, digital photography, AGE measurements, skin caliper measurements, and corneometry were also performed at each time point. RESULTS: 19/20 subjects successfully completed the study. The presence of AGEs was documented by skin autofluorescence. The 12-week duration of the study was insufficient to measure a change in skin AGEs, but longer application of the study product might produce different results. No tolerability issues were noted. There was a statistically significant increase in skin caliper measurements on the face (P = 0.004) and arm (P = 0.014) as well as corneometry measurements (P < 0.001) consistent with enhanced moisturization at week 12. The dermatologist investigator also found statistically significant improvement in fine lines (P = 0.01), firmness (P = 0.011), radiance (P < 0.001), skin tone (P = 0.014), skin smoothness (P < 0.001), creping (P < 0.004), and overall appearance (P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: This study examined a topical product containing an AGE inhibitor and a GAG synthesis stimulator designed for the unique needs of diabetic skin.

Cosmet Dermatol. 2009 Jun;8(2):147-51

Blueberry polyphenols increase life span and thermotolerance in Caenorhabditis elegans.

The beneficial effects of polyphenol compounds in fruits and vegetables are mainly extrapolated from in vitro studies or short-term dietary supplementation studies. Due to cost and duration, relatively little is known about whether dietary polyphenols are beneficial in whole animals, particularly with respect to aging. To address this question, we examined the effects of blueberry polyphenols on life span and aging of the nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, a useful organism for such a study. We report that a complex mixture of blueberry polyphenols increased life span and slowed aging-related declines in C. elegans. We also found that these benefits did not just reflect antioxidant activity in these compounds. For instance, blueberry treatment increased survival during acute heat stress, but was not protective against acute oxidative stress. The blueberry extract consists of three major fractions that all contain antioxidant activity. However, only one fraction, enriched in proanthocyanidin compounds, increased C. elegans life span and thermotolerance. To further determine how polyphenols prolonged C. elegans life span, we analyzed the genetic requirements for these effects. Prolonged life span from this treatment required the presence of a CaMKII pathway that mediates osmotic stress resistance, though not other pathways that affect stress resistance and longevity. In conclusion, polyphenolic compounds in blueberries had robust and reproducible benefits during aging that were separable from antioxidant effects.

Aging Cell. 2006 Feb;5(1):59-68

Bioactives in blueberries improve insulin sensitivity in obese, insulin-resistant men and women.

Dietary supplementation with whole blueberries in a preclinical study resulted in a reduction in glucose concentrations over time. We sought to evaluate the effect of daily dietary supplementation with bioactives from blueberries on whole-body insulin sensitivity in men and women. A double-blinded, randomized, and placebo-controlled clinical study design was used. After screening to resolve study eligibility, baseline (wk 0) insulin sensitivity was measured on 32 obese, nondiabetic, and insulin-resistant subjects using a high-dose hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp (insulin infusion of 120 mU(861 pmol)⋅m(-2)⋅min(-1)). Serum inflammatory biomarkers and adiposity were measured at baseline. At the end of the study, insulin sensitivity, inflammatory biomarkers, and adiposity were reassessed. Participants were randomized to consume either a smoothie containing 22.5 g blueberry bioactives (blueberry group, n = 15) or a smoothie of equal nutritional value without added blueberry bioactives (placebo group, n = 17) twice daily for 6 wk. Both groups were instructed to maintain their body weight by reducing ad libitum intake by an amount equal to the energy intake of the smoothies. Participants’ body weights were evaluated weekly and 3-d food records were collected at baseline, the middle, and end of the study. The mean change in insulin sensitivity improved more in the blueberry group (1.7 ± 0.5 mg⋅kg FFM(-1)⋅min(-1)) than in the placebo group (0.4 ± 0.4 mg⋅kg FFM(-1)⋅min(-1)) (P = 0.04). Insulin sensitivity was enhanced in the blueberry group at the end of the study without significant changes in adiposity, energy intake, and inflammatory biomarkers. In conclusion, daily dietary supplementation with bioactives from whole blueberries improved insulin sensitivity in obese, nondiabetic, and insulin-resistant participants.

J Nutr. 2010 Oct;140(10):1764-8

Blueberries decrease cardiovascular risk factors in obese men and women with metabolic syndrome.

Among all fruits, berries have shown substantial cardio-protective benefits due to their high polyphenol content. However, investigation of their efficacy in improving features of metabolic syndrome and related cardiovascular risk factors in obesity is limited. We examined the effects of blueberry supplementation on features of metabolic syndrome, lipid peroxidation, and inflammation in obese men and women. Forty-eight participants with metabolic syndrome [4 males and 44 females; BMI: 37.8 +/- 2.3 kg/m(2); age: 50.0 +/- 3.0 y (mean +/- SE)] consumed freeze-dried blueberry beverage (50 g freeze-dried blueberries, approximately 350 g fresh blueberries) or equivalent amounts of fluids (controls, 960 mL water) daily for 8 wk in a randomized controlled trial. Anthropometric and blood pressure measurements, assessment of dietary intakes, and fasting blood draws were conducted at screening and at wk 4 and 8 of the study. The decreases in systolic and diastolic blood pressures were greater in the blueberry-supplemented group (- 6 and - 4%, respectively) than in controls (- 1.5 and - 1.2%) (P lt 0.05), whereas the serum glucose concentration and lipid profiles were not affected. The decreases in plasma oxidized LDL and serum malondialdehyde and hydroxynonenal concentrations were greater in the blueberry group (- 28 and - 17%, respectively) than in the control group (- 9 and - 9%) (P lt 0.01). Our study shows blueberries may improve selected features of metabolic syndrome and related cardiovascular risk factors at dietary achievable doses.

J Nutr. 2010 Sep;140(9):1582-7

Blueberry-enriched diet protects rat heart from ischemic damage.

OBJECTIVES: to assess the cardioprotective properties of a blueberry enriched diet (BD). BACKGROUND: Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play a major role in ischemia-related myocardial injury. The attempts to use synthetic antioxidants to block the detrimental effects of ROS have produced mixed or negative results precipitating the interest in natural products. Blueberries are readily available product with the highest antioxidant capacity among fruits and vegetables. METHODS AND RESULTS: Following 3-mo of BD or a regular control diet (CD), the threshold for mitochondrial permeability transition (t(MPT)) was measured in isolated cardiomyocytes obtained from young male Fischer-344 rats. Compared to CD, BD resulted in a 24% increase (p<0.001) of ROS indexed t(MPT). The remaining animals were subjected to a permanent ligation of the left descending coronary artery. 24 hrs later resulting myocardial infarction (MI) in rats on BD was 22% less than in CD rats (p<0.01). Significantly less TUNEL(+) cardiomyocytes (2% vs 9%) and 40% less inflammation cells were observed in the myocardial area at risk of BD compared to CD rats (p<0.01). In the subgroup of rats, after coronary ligation the original diet was either continued or switched to the opposite one, and cardiac remodeling and MI expansion were followed by serial echocardiography for 10 weeks. Measurements suggested that continuation of BD or its withdrawal after MI attenuated or accelerated rates of post MI cardiac remodeling and MI expansion. CONCLUSION: A blueberry-enriched diet protected the myocardium from induced ischemic damage and demonstrated the potential to attenuate the development of post MI chronic heart failure.

PLoS One. 2009 Jun 18;4(6):e5954

Phenolic compounds from blueberries can inhibit colon cancer cell proliferation and induce apoptosis.

Research has shown that diets rich in phenolic compounds may be associated with lower risks of several chronic diseases including cancer. This study systematically evaluated the bioactivities of phenolic compounds in rabbiteye blueberries and assessed their potential antiproliferation and apoptosis induction effects using two colon cancer cell lines, HT-29 and Caco-2. Polyphenols in three blueberry cultivars, Briteblue, Tifblue, and Powderblue, were extracted and freeze-dried. The extracts were further separated into phenolic acids, tannins, flavonols, and anthocyanins using an HLB cartridge and LH20 column. Some individual phenolic acids and flavonoids were identified by HPLC with >90% purity in anthocyanin fractions. The dried extracts and fractions were added to the cell culture medium to test for antiproliferation activities and induction of apoptosis. Flavonol and tannin fractions resulted in 50% inhibition of cell proliferation at concentrations of 70-100 and 50-100 microg/mL in HT-29 and Caco-2 cells, respectively. The phenolic acid fraction showed relatively lower bioactivities with 50% inhibition at approximately 1,000 microg/mL. The greatest antiproliferation effect among all four fractions was from the anthocyanin fractions. Both HT-29 and Caco-2 cell growth was significantly inhibited by >50% by the anthocyanin fractions at concentrations of 15-50 microg/mL. Anthocyanin fractions also resulted in 2-7 times increases in DNA fragmentation, indicating the induction of apoptosis. The effective dosage levels are close to the reported range of anthocyanin concentrations in rat plasma. These findings suggest that blueberry intake may reduce colon cancer risk.

J Agric Food Chem. 2005 Sep 7;53(18):7320-9

Oral administration of blueberry inhibits angiogenic tumor growth and enhances survival of mice with endothelial cell neoplasm.

Endothelial cell neoplasms are the most common soft tissue tumor in infants. Subcutaneous injection of spontaneously transformed murine endothelial (EOMA) cells results in development of hemangioendothelioma (HE). We have previously shown that blueberry extract (BBE) treatment of EOMA cells in vitro prior to injection in vivo can significantly inhibit the incidence and size of developing HE. In this study, we sought to determine whether oral BBE could be effective in managing HE and to investigate the mechanisms through which BBE exerts its effects on endothelial cells. A dose-dependent decrease in HE tumor size was observed in mice receiving daily oral gavage feeds of BBE. Kaplan-Meier survival curve showed significantly enhanced survival for mice with HE tumors given BBE, compared to control. BBE treatment of EOMA cells inhibited both c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and NF-kappaB signaling pathways that culminate in monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) expression required for HE development. Antiangiogenic effects of BBE on EOMA cells included decreased proliferation by BrdU assay, decreased sprouting on Matrigel, and decreased transwell migration. Thus, this work provides first evidence demonstrating that BBE can limit tumor formation through antiangiogenic effects and inhibition of JNK and NF-kappaB signaling pathways. Oral administration of BBE represents a potential therapeutic antiangiogenic strategy for treating endothelial cell neoplasms in children.

Antioxid Redox Signal. 2009 Jan;11(1):47-58

Blueberry anthocyanins: protection against ageing and light-induced damage in retinal pigment epithelial cells.

Retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells are vital for retinal health. However, they are susceptible to injury with ageing and exposure to excessive light, including UV (100-380 nm) and visible (380-760 nm) radiation. To evaluate the protective effect of blueberry anthocyanins on RPE cells, in vitro cell models of replicative senescent and light-induced damage were established in the present study. After purification and fractionation, blueberry anthocyanin extracts (BAE) were yielded with total anthocyanin contents of 31•0 (sd 0•5) % and were used in this study. Replicative senescence of RPE cells was induced by repeatedly passaging cells from the fourth passage to the tenth. From the fifth passage, cultured RPE cells began to enter a replicative senescence, exhibiting reduced cell proliferation along with an increase in the number of β-galactosidase-positive cells. RPE cells maintained high cell viability (P < 0•01) and a low (P < 0•01) percentage of β-galactosidase-positive cells when treated with 0•1 µg/ml BAE. In contrast, after exposure to 2500 (sd 500) lx light (420-800 nm) for 12 h, RPE cells in the positive control (light exposure, no BAE treatment) exhibited premature senescence, low (P < 0•01) cell viability and increased (P < 0•01) vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) release compared with negative control cells, which were not subjected to light irradiation and BAE exposure. Correspondingly, BAE is beneficial to RPE cells by protecting these cells against light-induced damage through the suppression of ageing and apoptosis as well as the down-regulation of the over-expressed VEGF to normal level. These results demonstrate that BAE is efficacious against senescence and light-induced damage of RPE cells.

Br J Nutr. 2011 Oct 12:1-12

Age-related toxicity of amyloid-beta associated with increased pERK and pCREB in primary hippocampal neurons: reversal by blueberry extract.

Further clarification is needed to address the paradox that memory formation, aging and neurodegeneration all involve calcium influx, oxyradical production (ROS) and activation of certain signaling pathways. In aged rats and in APP/PS-1 mice, cognitive and hippocampal Ca(2+) dysregulation was reversed by food supplementation with a high antioxidant blueberry extract. Here, we studied whether neurons were an important target of blueberry extract and whether the mechanism involved altered ROS signaling through MAP kinase and cyclic-AMP response element binding protein (CREB), pathways known to be activated in response to amyloid-beta (Aβ). Primary hippocampal neurons were isolated and cultured from embryonic, middle-age or old-age (24 months) rats. Blueberry extract was found to be equally neuroprotective against Aβ neurotoxicity at all ages. Increases in Aβ toxicity with age were associated with age-related increases in immunoreactivity of neurons to pERK and an age-independent increase in pCREB. Treatment with blueberry extract strongly inhibited these increases in parallel with neuroprotection. Simultaneous labeling for ROS and for glutathione with dichlorofluorescein and monochlorobimane showed a mechanism of action of blueberry extract to involve transient ROS generation with an increase in the redox buffer glutathione. We conclude that the increased age-related susceptibility of old-age neurons to Aβ toxicity may be due to higher levels of activation of pERK and pCREB pathways that can be protected by blueberry extract through inhibition of both these pathways through an ROS stress response. These results suggest that the beneficial effects of blueberry extract may involve transient stress signaling and ROS protection that may translate into improved cognition in aging rats and APP/PS1 mice given blueberry extract.

J Nutr Biochem. 2010 Oct;21(10):991-8

Inhibitory effect of blueberry polyphenolic compounds on oleic acid-induced hepatic steatosis in vitro.

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is one of the most common chronic liver diseases worldwide and is closely associated with metabolic syndromes, such as obesity, diabetes, and insulin resistance. Nonalcoholic fatty liver (NAFL), also called simple steatosis, is the initial phase of NAFLD, which is accompanied the characteristic pathological overaccumulation of lipids without inflammation. To prevent NAFLD from reaching the NAFL stage through dietary therapy, in the present work, wild Chinese blueberries (Vacciniun spp.) were selected for their well-known benefits in inhibiting metabolic syndrome. After being purified from wild Chinese blueberries, polyphenol-rich extracts were subsequently separated into three fractions, namely, anthocyanin-rich fraction, phenolic acid-rich fraction, and ethyl acetate extract. The inhibition of oleic acid (OA)-induced triglyceride (TG) deposition in HepG 2 cells was referred to as the potential activity of preventing NAFL. Biochemical indicators, such as cytotoxicity, TG level, levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and intracellular reactive oxygen species, were used to evaluate the analogous pathological stage of NAFLD. The results show that OA ≤ 1.0 mM exhibits a dose-dependent induction of TG accumulation, and no inflammation was observed based on the changes in ALT and AST levels. Therefore, 1.0 mM OA was used to simulate an in vitro fatty liver. Blueberry polyphenol-rich extract efficiently inhibited OA-induced TG accumulation in HepG2 cells, and the phenolic acid-rich fraction performed efficiently. Seven phenolic acids were subsequently identified using a high-performance liquid chromatography assay, and the main types were caffeic, chlorogenic, ferulic, p-coumaric, and cinnamic acids. These phenolic acid standards also displayed good efficiency in inhibiting TG accumulation in HepG2 cells. These results imply that wild Chinese blueberries have a potential preventive effect on NAFLD in its early stage, and phenolic acids are the most efficient component.

J Agric Food Chem. 2011 Nov 23;59(22):12254-63

The cartilage collagens: a review of their structure, organization, and role in the pathogenesis of experimental arthritis in animals and in human rheumatic disease.

This contribution reviews the structure and organization of collagen molecules found in cartilage and the roles that they may play in rheumatic diseases. Cartilage is unique in its physical properties and molecular composition, and contains sufficient amounts of types II, IX, X, and XI collagen to deem these molecules as “cartilage-specific.” The vitreous body of the eye, a “cartilage-like” tissue is also rich in the same collagens but is type X deficient. Types VI and XII collagen are present in cartilage as well as noncartilaginous tissues. Types II, IX, and XI collagen are organized into matrix fibrils, where type II constitutes the bulk of the fibril, type XI regulates fibril size, and type IX facilitates fibril interaction with proteoglycan macromolecules. Genetic defects in these collagens can produce mild to severe developmental abnormalities, including spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia often accompanied by an accelerated form of osteoarthritis. Sensitization with collagen can produce experimental rheumatic diseases. Type II collagen induces an erosive polyarthritis in certain strains of rats, mice, and higher primates which can resemble rheumatoid arthritis and relapsing polychondritis. Type XI collagen is arthritogenic in rats but not mice; type IX induces autoimmunity in both species but not arthritis. Arthritis is initiated by complement fixing antibodies that bind to type II collagen in autologous cartilage, and the production of these antibodies is MHC restricted and T cell dependent. It is unclear whether T cells alone can induce arthritis, although they probably help sustain it. Mapping and characterizing the of T cell epitopes on type II collagen has resulted in the synthesis of small homolog and substituted peptides of type II collagen which suppress arthritis in an antigen-specific manner by a variety of routes, including mucosal. Moreover, collagen-induced arthritis has proven a valuable model to study the contribution of cytokines and other biological agents in the pathogenesis of joint injury and how they might be used to develop new therapies. Collagen autoimmunity has been implicated in the pathogenesis rheumatoid arthritis and polychondritis. Circulating antibodies to type II collagen are found in both diseases. Antibodies to types IX and XI collagen are also present in rheumatoid sera but are less prevalent. Rheumatoid cartilage and synovium contain antibodies to type II collagen at a prevalence far greater than serum, suggesting an intra-articular antigen-driven immune process. Although effective in animal models, attempts to treat rheumatoid arthritis with orally administered type II collagen have proven elusive. Different approaches using newer formulations and selected or modified oligopeptides remain to be tested and could prove effective in the treatment of the human rheumatic diseases.

J Agric Food Chem. 2011 Nov 23;59(22):12254-63

Efficacy and safety of glycosylated undenatured type-II collagen (UC-II) in therapy of arthritic dogs.

DeParle L. A., Gupta R. C., Canerdy T. D., Goad J. T., D’Altilio M., Bagchi M., Bagchi D. Efficacy and safety of glycosylated undenatured type-II collagen (UC-II) in therapy of arthritic dogs. J. vet. Pharmacol. Therap.28, 385-390. In large breed dogs, arthritis is very common because of obesity, injury, aging, immune disorder, or genetic predispositions. This study was therefore undertaken to evaluate clinical efficacy and safety of undenatured type-II collagen (UC-II) in obese-arthritic dogs. Fifteen dogs in three groups received either no UC-II (Group I) or UC-II with 1 mg/day (Group II) or 10 mg/day (Group III) for 90 days. Lameness and pain were measured on a weekly basis for 120 days (90 days treatment plus 30 days post-treatment). Blood samples were assayed for creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (markers of renal injury); and alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase (evidence of hepatic injury). Dogs receiving 1 mg or 10 mg UC-II/day for 90 days showed significant declines in overall pain and pain during limb manipulation and lameness after physical exertion, with 10 mg showed greater improvement. At either dose of UC-II, no adverse effects were noted and no significant changes were noted in serum chemistry, suggesting that UC-II was well tolerated. In addition, dogs receiving UC-II for 90 days showed increased physical activity level. Following UC-II withdrawal for a period of 30 days, all dogs experienced a relapse of overall pain, exercise-associated lameness, and pain upon limb manipulation. These results suggest that daily treatment of arthritic dogs with UC-II ameliorates signs and symptoms of arthritis, and UC-II is well tolerated as no adverse effects were noted.

J Vet Pharmacol Ther. 2005 Aug;28(4):385-90

Therapeutic efficacy and safety of undenatured type II collagen singly or in combination with glucosamine and chondroitin in arthritic dogs.

This investigation was undertaken to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy and safety of glycosylated undenatured type II collagen (UC-II) alone or in combination with glucosamine HCl and chondroitin sulfate in arthritic dogs. Twenty dogs divided into four groups (n = 5) were daily treated orally for 120 days: group I, placebo; group II, 10 mg UC-II; group III, 2,000 mg glucosamine + 1,600 mg chondroitin; group IV, UC-II (10 mg) + glucosamine (2,000 mg) + chondroitin (1,600 mg), followed by a 30-day withdrawal period. On a monthly basis, dogs were examined for overall pain, pain upon limb manipulation, and exercise-associated lameness. Serum samples were analyzed for markers of liver function (ALT and bilirubin) and renal function (BUN and creatinine). Body weight was also measured at a monthly interval. Dogs in group I exhibited no change in arthritic conditions. Dogs receiving UC-II alone showed significant reductions in overall pain within 30 days (33%) and pain upon limb manipulation and exercise-associated lameness after 60 days (66% and 44%, respectively) of treatment. Maximum reductions in pain were noted after 120 days of treatment (overall pain reduction, 62%; pain reduction upon limb manipulation, 91%; and reduction in exercise-associated lameness, 78%). The overall activity of the dogs in the UC-II supplemented with glucosamine and chondroitin group (group IV) was significantly better than the glucosamine + chondroitin-supplemented group (group III). Glucosamine and chondroitin alleviated some pain, but in combination with UC-II (group IV) provided significant reductions in overall pain (57%), pain upon limb manipulation (53%), and exercise-associated lameness (53%). Following withdrawal of supplements, all dogs (groups II to IV) experienced a relapse of pain. None of the dogs in any groups showed any adverse effects or change in liver or kidney function markers or body weight. Data of this placebo-controlled study demonstrate that daily treatment of arthritic dogs with UC-II alone or in combination with glucosamine and chondroitin markedly alleviates arthritic-associated pain, and these supplements are well tolerated as no side effects were noted.

Toxicol Mech Methods. 2007;17(4):189-96

Effects of oral administration of type II collagen on rheumatoid arthritis.

Rheumatoid arthritis is an inflammatory synovial disease thought to involve T cells reacting to an antigen within the joint. Type II collagen is the major protein in articular cartilage and is a potential autoantigen in this disease. Oral tolerization to autoantigens suppresses animal models of T cell-mediated autoimmune disease, including two models of rheumatoid arthritis. In this randomized, double-blind trial involving 60 patients with severe, active rheumatoid arthritis, a decrease in the number of swollen joints and tender joints occurred in subjects fed chicken type II collagen for 3 months but not in those that received a placebo. Four patients in the collagen group had complete remission of the disease. No side effects were evident. These data demonstrate clinical efficacy of an oral tolerization approach for rheumatoid arthritis.

Science. 1993 Sep 24;261(5129):1727-30

Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with oral type II collagen. Results of a multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: Oral administration of cartilage-derived type II collagen (CII) has been shown to ameliorate arthritis in animal models of joint inflammation, and preliminary studies have suggested that this novel therapy is clinically beneficial and safe in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The present study was undertaken to test the safety and efficacy of 4 different dosages of orally administered CII in patients with RA. METHODS: Two hundred seventy-four patients with active RA were enrolled at 6 different sites and randomized to receive placebo or 1 of 4 dosages (20, 100, 500, or 2,500 microg/day) of oral CII for 24 weeks. Efficacy parameters were assessed monthly. Cumulative response rates (percentage of patients meeting the criteria for response at any time during the study) were analyzed utilizing 3 sets of composite criteria: the Paulus criteria, the American College of Rheumatology criteria for improvement in RA, and a requirement for > or = 30% reduction in both swollen and tender joint counts. RESULTS: Eighty-three percent of patients completed 24 weeks of treatment. Numeric trends in favor of the 20 microg/day treatment group were seen with all 3 cumulative composite measures. However, a statistically significant increase (P = 0.035) in response rate for the 20 microg/day group versus placebo was detected using only the Paulus criteria. The presence of serum antibodies to CII at baseline was significantly associated with an increased likelihood of responding to treatment. No treatment-related adverse events were detected. The efficacy seen with the lowest dosage is consistent with the findings of animal studies and with known mechanisms of oral tolerance in which lower doses of orally administered autoantigens preferentially induce disease-suppressing regulatory cells. CONCLUSION: Positive effects were observed with CII at the lowest dosage tested, and the presence of serum antibodies to CII at baseline may predict response to therapy. No side effects were associated with this novel therapeutic agent. Further controlled studies are required to assess the efficacy of this treatment approach.

Arthritis Rheum. 1998 Feb;41(2):290-7

A pilot trial of oral type II collagen in the treatment of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the efficacy of oral chicken type II collagen (CCII) in the treatment of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis (JRA). METHODS: Ten patients with active JRA were treated with CCII for 12 weeks. Efficacy parameters, which included swollen and tender joint count and score, grip strength, 50-foot walking time, duration of morning stiffness, and patient and physician global scores of disease severity, were assessed monthly. RESULTS: All patients completed the full course of therapy. Eight patients had reductions in both swollen and tender joint counts after 3 months of CCII. The mean changes from baseline in swollen and tender joint counts for the 8 responders at the end of the study were -61% and -54%, respectively. Mean values for other efficacy parameters also showed improvement from baseline. There were no adverse events that were considered to be treatment related. CONCLUSION: Oral CCII may be a safe and effective therapy for JRA, and its use in this disease warrants further investigation.

Arthritis Rheum. 1996 Apr;39(4):623-8

Effects of orally administered undenatured type II collagen against arthritic inflammatory diseases: a mechanistic exploration.

Arthritis afflicts approximately 43 million Americans or approximately 16.6% of the US population. The two most common and best known types of arthritis are osteoarthritis (OA) and rheumatoid arthritis (RA). A significant amount of scientific research has been done in attempts to explain what initiates forms of arthritis, how it is promoted and perpetuated and how to effectively intervene in the disease process and promote cartilage remodeling. Current pharmacological strategies mainly address immune suppression and antiinflammatory mechanisms and have had limited success. Recent research provides evidence that alterations in the three-dimensional configuration of glycoproteins are responsible for the recognition/response signaling that catalyzes T-cell attack. Oral administration of autoantigens has been shown to suppress a variety of experimentally induced autoimmune pathologies, including antigen-induced RA. The interaction between gut-associated lymphoid tissue in the duodenum and epitopes of orally administered undenatured type II collagen facilitates oral tolerance to the antigen and stems systemic T-cell attack on joint cartilage. Previous studies have shown that small doses of orally administered undenatured type II chicken collagen effectively deactivate killer T-cell attack. A novel glycosylated undenatured type II collagen material (UC-II) was developed to preserve biological activity. The presence of active epitopes in the UC-II collagen is confirmed by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay test and distinguishes this form from hydrolyzed or denatured collagen. Oral intake of small amounts of glycosylated UC-II presents active epitopes, with the correct three-dimensional structures, to Peyer’s patches, which influences the signaling required for the development of immune tolerance. UC-II has demonstrated the ability to induce tolerance, effectively reducing joint pain and swelling in RA subjects. A pilot study was conducted for 42 days to evaluate the efficacy of UC-II (10 mg/day) in five female subjects (58-78 years) suffering from significant joint pain. Significant pain reduction including morning stiffness, stiffness following periods of rest, pain that worsens with use of the affected joint and loss of joint range of motion and function was observed. Thus, UC-II may serve as a novel therapeutic tool in joint inflammatory conditions and symptoms of OA and RA.

Int J Clin Pharmacol Res. 2002;22(3-4):101-10

The role of the cartilage matrix in osteoarthritis.

Osteoarthritis (OA) involves all the structures of the joint. How the disease is initiated and what factors trigger the disease process remain unclear, although the mechanical environment seems to have a role. Our understanding of the biology of the disease has been hampered by the lack of access to tissue samples from patients with early stage disease, because clinically recognizable symptoms appear late in the osteoarthritic process. However, new data about the early processes in articular cartilage and new tools to identify the early stages of OA are providing fresh insights into the pathological sequence of events. The progressive destruction of cartilage involves degradation of matrix constituents, and rather active, yet inefficient, repair attempts. The release of fragmented molecules provides opportunities to monitor the disease process in patients, and to investigate whether these fragments are involved in propagating OA, for example, by inducing inflammation. The role of bone has not been fully elucidated, but changes in bone seem to be secondary to alterations in articular cartilage, which change the mechanical environment of the bone cells and induce them, in turn, to modulate tissue structure.

Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2011 Jan;7(1):50-6

A multicenter, double-blind, randomized, controlled phase III clinical trial of chicken type II collagen in rheumatoid arthritis.

INTRODUCTION: Chicken type II collagen (CCII) is a protein extracted from the cartilage of chicken breast and exhibits intriguing possibilities for the treatment of autoimmune diseases by inducing oral tolerance. A 24-week, double-blind, double-dummy, randomized, methotrexate (MTX)-controlled study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy and safety of CCII in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). METHODS: Five hundred three RA patients were included in the study. Patients received either 0.1 mg daily of CCII (n = 326) or 10 mg once a week of MTX (n = 177) for 24 weeks. Each patient was evaluated for pain, morning stiffness, tender joint count, swollen joint count, health assessment questionnaire (HAQ), assessments by investigator and patient, erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), and C-reactive protein (CRP) by using the standard tools at baseline (week 0) and at weeks 12 and 24. Additionally, rheumatoid factor (RF) was evaluated at weeks 0 and 24. Measurement of a battery of biochemical parameters in serum, hematological parameters, and urine analysis was performed to evaluate the safety of CCII. RESULTS: Four hundred fifty-four patients (94.43%) completed the 24-week follow-up. In both groups, there were decreases in pain, morning stiffness, tender joint count, swollen joint count, HAQ, and assessments by investigator and patient, and all differences were statistically significant. In the MTX group, ESR and CRP decreased. RF did not change in either group. At 24 weeks, 41.55% of patients in the CCII group and 57.86% in the MTX group met the American College of Rheumatology 20% improvement criteria (ACR-20) and 16.89% and 30.82%, respectively, met the ACR 50% improvement criteria (ACR-50). Both response rates for ACR-20 and ACR-50 in the CCII group were lower than those of the MTX group, and this difference was statistically significant (P < 0.05). The DAS28 (disease activity score using 28 joint counts) values of the two treatment groups were calculated, and there was a statistically significant difference between the two treatment groups (P < 0.05). Gastrointestinal complaints were common in both groups, but there were fewer and milder side effects in the CCII group than in the MTX group. The incidence of adverse events between the two groups was statistically significant (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: CCII is effective in the treatment of RA and is safe for human consumption. CCII exerts its beneficial effects by controlling inflammatory responses through inducing oral tolerance in RA patients.

Arthritis Res Ther. 2009;11(6):R180. Epub 2009 Dec 1

Oral administration of type-II collagen peptide 250-270 suppresses specific cellular and humoral immune response in collagen-induced arthritis.

Oral antigen is an attractive approach for the treatment of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. Establishment of immune markers and methods in evaluating the effects of antigen-specific cellular and humoral immune responses will help the application of oral tolerance in the treatment of human diseases. The present article observed the effects of chicken collagen II (CII), the recombinant polymerized human collagen II 250-270 (rhCII 250-270) peptide and synthesized human CII 250-270 (syCII 250-270) peptide on the induction of antigen-specific autoimmune response in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and on the specific cellular and humoral immune response in collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) and mice fed with CII (250-270) prior to immunization with CII. In the study, proliferation, activation and intracellular cytokine production of antigen-specific T lymphocytes were simultaneously analyzed by bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation and flow cytometry at the single-cell level. The antigen-specific antibody and antibody-forming cells were detected by ELISA and ELISPOT, respectively. CII (250-270) was found to have stimulated the response of specific lymphocytes in PBMC from RA patients, including the increase expression of surface activation antigen marker CD69 and CD25, and DNA synthesis. Mice, fed with CII (250-270) before CII immunization, had significantly lower arthritic scores than the mice immunized with CII alone, and the body weight of the former increased during the study period. Furthermore, the specific T cell activity, proliferation and secretion of interferon (IFN)-gamma in spleen cells were actively suppressed in CII (250-270)-fed mice, and the serum anti-CII, anti-CII (250-270) antibody activities and the frequency of specific antibody-forming spleen cells were significantly lower in CII (250-270)-fed mice than in mice immunized with CII alone. These observations suggest that oral administration of CII (250-270) can suppress the cellular and humoral immune response in collagen-induced arthritis, and the simultaneous analysis of antigen-specific cellular and humoral immune responses at single-cell level will help the understanding of the oral tolerance mechanisms in CIA and the development of innovative therapeutic intervention for RA.

Clin Immunol. 2007 Jan;122(1):75-84. Epub 2006 Oct 11

Chlorogenic acid stimulates glucose transport in skeletal muscle via AMPK activation: a contributor to the beneficial effects of coffee on diabetes.

Chlorogenic acid (CGA) has been shown to delay intestinal glucose absorption and inhibit gluconeogenesis. Our aim was to investigate the role of CGA in the regulation of glucose transport in skeletal muscle isolated from db/db mice and L6 skeletal muscle cells. Oral glucose tolerance test was performed on db/db mice treated with CGA and soleus muscle was isolated for 2-deoxyglucose transport study. 2DG transport was also examined in L6 myotubes with or without inhibitors such as wortmannin or compound c. AMPK was knocked down with AMPKα1/2 siRNA to study its effect on CGA-stimulated glucose transport. GLUT 4 translocation, phosphorylation of AMPK and Akt, AMPK activity, and association of IRS-1 and PI3K were investigated in the presence of CGA. In db/db mice, a significant decrease in fasting blood sugar was observed 10 minutes after the intraperitoneal administration of 250 mg/kg CGA and the effect persisted for another 30 minutes after the glucose challenge. Besides, CGA stimulated and enhanced both basal and insulin-mediated 2DG transports in soleus muscle. In L6 myotubes, CGA caused a dose- and time-dependent increase in glucose transport. Compound c and AMPKα1/2 siRNA abrogated the CGA-stimulated glucose transport. Consistent with these results, CGA was found to phosphorylate AMPK and ACC, consistent with the result of increased AMPK activities. CGA did not appear to enhance association of IRS-1 with p85. However, we observed activation of Akt by CGA. These parallel activations in turn increased translocation of GLUT 4 to plasma membrane. At 2 mmol/l, CGA did not cause any significant changes in viability or proliferation of L6 myotubes. Our data demonstrated for the first time that CGA stimulates glucose transport in skeletal muscle via the activation of AMPK. It appears that CGA may contribute to the beneficial effects of coffee on Type 2 diabetes mellitus.

PLoS One. 2012;7(3):e32718

Caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee effects on plasma lipoprotein cholesterol, apolipoproteins, and lipase activity: a controlled, randomized trial.

Coffee consumption has been associated with elevated plasma cholesterol. One hundred eighty-one men consumed a standard caffeinated coffee for 2 mo followed by randomization to continue caffeinated coffee (control), change to decaffeinated coffee or no coffee for 2 mo. Plasma low-density-lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol and apolipoprotein B concentrations increased significantly (0.12 +/- 0.65 mmol/L, P less than 0.025; 0.06 +/- 0.12 g/L, P less than 0.0004, respectively) in the group that changed to decaffeinated coffee. In a subgroup (n = 51), post-heparin lipoprotein lipase decreased significantly more (-270 mmol free fatty acids.L-1.h-1, P less than 0.003) in the decaffeinated-coffee group. Resting heart rate and blood pressure did not change significantly. Change from caffeinated to decaffeinated coffee increased plasma LDL cholesterol and apolipoprotein B whereas discontinuation of caffeinated coffee revealed no change. This finding suggests that a coffee component other than caffeine is responsible for the LDL cholesterol, apolipoprotein B, and lipase activity changes reported in this investigation.

Am J Clin Nutr. 1991 Sep;54(3):599-605

Inhibitory effect of green coffee bean extract on fat accumulation and body weight gain in mice.

BACKGROUND: An epidemiological study conducted in Italy indicated that coffee has the greatest antioxidant capacity among the commonly consumed beverages. Green coffee bean is rich in chlorogenic acid and its related compounds. The effect of green coffee bean extract (GCBE) on fat accumulation and body weight in mice was assessed with the objective of investigating the effect of GCBE on mild obesity. METHODS: Male ddy mice were fed a standard diet containing GCBE and its principal constituents, namely, caffeine and chlorogenic acid, for 14 days. Further, hepatic triglyceride (TG) level was also investigated after consecutive administration (13 days) of GCBE and its constituents. To examine the effect of GCBE and its constituents on fat absorption, serum TG changes were evaluated in olive oil-loaded mice. In addition, to investigate the effect on hepatic TG metabolism, carnitine palmitoyltransferase (CPT) activity in mice was evaluated after consecutive ingestion (6 days) of GCBE and its constituents (caffeine, chlorogenic acid, neochlorogenic acid and feruloylquinic acid mixture). RESULTS: It was found that 0.5% and 1% GCBE reduced visceral fat content and body weight. Caffeine and chlorogenic acid showed a tendency to reduce visceral fat and body weight. Oral administration of GCBE (100 and 200 mg/kg. day) for 13 days showed a tendency to reduce hepatic TG in mice. In the same model, chlorogenic acid (60 mg/kg. day) reduced hepatic TG level. In mice loaded with olive oil (5 mL/kg), GCBE (200 and 400 mg/kg) and caffeine (20 and 40 mg/kg) reduced serum TG level. GCBE (1%), neochlorogenic acid (0.028% and 0.055%) and feruloylquinic acid mixture (0.081%) significantly enhanced hepatic CPT activity in mice. However, neither caffeine nor chlorogenic acid alone was found to enhance CPT activity. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that GCBE is possibly effective against weight gain and fat accumulation by inhibition of fat absorption and activation of fat metabolism in the liver. Caffeine was found to be a suppressor of fat absorption, while chlorogenic acid was found to be partially involved in the suppressive effect of GCBE that resulted in the reduction of hepatic TG level. Phenolic compounds such as neochlorogenic acid and feruloylquinic acid mixture, except chlorogenic acid, can enhance hepatic CPT activity.

BMC Complement Altern Med. 2006 Mar 17;6:9

Coffee polyphenols suppress diet-induced body fat accumulation by downregulating SREBP-1c and related molecules in C57BL/6J mice.

The prevalence of obesity is increasing globally, and obesity is a major risk factor for type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. We investigated the effects of coffee polyphenols (CPP), which are abundant in coffee and consumed worldwide, on diet-induced body fat accumulation. C57BL/6J mice were fed either a control diet, a high-fat diet, or a high-fat diet supplemented with 0.5 to 1.0% CPP for 2-15 wk. Supplementation with CPP significantly reduced body weight gain, abdominal and liver fat accumulation, and infiltration of macrophages into adipose tissues. Energy expenditure evaluated by indirect calorimetry was significantly increased in CPP-fed mice. The mRNA levels of sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP)-1c, acetyl-CoA carboxylase-1 and -2, stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1, and pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase-4 in the liver were significantly lower in CPP-fed mice than in high-fat control mice. Similarly, CPP suppressed the expression of these molecules in Hepa 1-6 cells, concomitant with an increase in microRNA-122. Structure-activity relationship studies of nine quinic acid derivatives isolated from CPP in Hepa 1-6 cells suggested that mono- or di-caffeoyl quinic acids (CQA) are active substances in the beneficial effects of CPP. Furthermore, CPP and 5-CQA decreased the nuclear active form of SREBP-1, acetyl-CoA carboxylase activity, and cellular malonyl-CoA levels. These findings indicate that CPP enhances energy metabolism and reduces lipogenesis by downregulating SREBP-1c and related molecules, which leads to the suppression of body fat accumulation.

Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2011 Jan;300(1):E122-33

Modulating effects of chlorogenic acid on lipids and glucose metabolism and expression of hepatic peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha in golden hamsters fed on high fat diet.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the effects of chlorogenic acid (CGA) on lipid and glucose metabolism under a high dietary fat burden and to explore the possible role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha (PPAR-alpha) in these effects. METHODS: Twenty male golden hamsters were randomly divided into CGA treatment group (n=10, given peritoneal injection of CGA solution prepared with PBS, 80 mg CGA/kg body weight daily), and control group (n=10, given PBS i.p. at the average volume of the treatment group). Animals in both groups were given 15% high fat diet. Eight weeks after treatment with CGA, the level of biochemical parameters in fasting serum and tissues and the expression of hepatic mRNA and protein PPAR-alpha were determined. RESULTS: Eight weeks after treatment with CGA, the levels of fasting serum triglyceride (TG), free fatty acid (FFA), total cholesterol (TC), low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), glucose (FSG), and insulin (FSI) were significantly lower in the GGA treatment group than in the control group. CGA also led to higher activity of hepatic lipase (HL), lower contents of TG and FFA in liver, and lower activity of lipoprotein lipase (LPL) in skeletal muscle. Furthermore, CGA significantly elevated significantly elevated the expression level of mRNA and protein expression in hepatic PPAR-alpha. CONCLUSION: CGA can modify lipids and glucose metabolism, which may be attributed to PPAR-alpha facilitated lipid clearance in liver and improved insulin sensitivity.

Biomed Environ Sci. 2009 Apr;22(2):122-9

Chlorogenic acid exhibits anti-obesity property and improves lipid metabolism in high-fat diet-induced-obese mice.

This study investigated the efficacy of chlorogenic acid on altering body fat in high-fat diet (37% calories from fat) induced-obese mice compared to caffeic acid. Caffeic acid or chlorogenic acid was supplemented with high-fat diet at 0.02% (wt/wt) dose. Both caffeic acid and chlorogenic acid significantly lowered body weight, visceral fat mass and plasma leptin and insulin levels compared to the high-fat control group. They also lowered triglyceride (in plasma, liver and heart) and cholesterol (in plasma, adipose tissue and heart) concentrations. Triglyceride content in adipose tissue was significantly lowered, whereas the plasma adiponectin level was elevated by chlorogenic acid supplementation compared to the high-fat control group. Body weight was significantly correlated with plasma leptin (r=0.894, p<0.01) and insulin (r=0.496, p<0.01) levels, respectively. Caffeic acid and chlorogenic acid significantly inhibited fatty acid synthase, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA reductase and acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase activities, while they increased fatty acid beta-oxidation activity and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors alpha expression in the liver compared to the high-fat group. These results suggest that caffeic acid and chlorogenic acid improve body weight, lipid metabolism and obesity-related hormones levels in high-fat fed mice. Chlorogenic acid seemed to be more potent for body weight reduction and regulation of lipid metabolism than caffeic acid.

Food Chem Toxicol. 2010 Mar;48(3):937-43

Overweight, obesity, and mortality in a large prospective cohort of persons 50 to 71 years old.

BACKGROUND: Obesity, def-ined by a body-mass index (BMI) (the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters) of 30.0 or more, is associated with an increased risk of death, but the relation between overweight (a BMI of 25.0 to 29.9) and the risk of death has been questioned. METHODS: We prospectively examined BMI in relation to the risk of death from any cause in 527,265 U.S. men and women in the National Institutes of Health-AARP cohort who were 50 to 71 years old at enrollment in 1995-1996. BMI was calculated from self-reported weight and height. Relative risks and 95 percent confidence intervals were adjusted for age, race or ethnic group, level of education, smoking status, physical activity, and alcohol intake. We also conducted alternative analyses to address potential biases related to preexisting chronic disease and smoking status. RESULTS: During a maximum follow-up of 10 years through 2005, 61,317 participants (42,173 men and 19,144 women) died. Initial analyses showed an increased risk of death for the highest and lowest categories of BMI among both men and women, in all racial or ethnic groups, and at all ages. When the analysis was restricted to healthy people who had never smoked, the risk of death was associated with both overweight and obesity among men and women. In analyses of BMI during midlife (age of 50 years) among those who had never smoked, the associations became stronger, with the risk of death increasing by 20 to 40 percent among overweight persons and by two to at least three times among obese persons; the risk of death among underweight persons was attenuated. CONCLUSIONS: Excess body weight during midlife, including overweight, is associated with an increased risk of death.

N Engl J Med. 2006 Aug 24;355(8):763-78

Obesity as a disease: no lightweight matter.

The epidemic rise in obesity has fuelled the current debate over its classification as a disease. Contrary to just being a medical condition or risk factor for other diseases, obesity is a complex disease of multifaceted aetiology, with its own disabling capacities, pathophysiologies and comorbidities. It meets the medical definition of disease in that it is a physiological dysfunction of the human organism with environmental, genetic and endocrinological aetiologies. It is a response to environmental stimuli, genetic predisposition and abnormalities, and has a characteristic set of signs and symptoms with consistent anatomical alterations. Excess adipose tissue increases the work of the heart and leads to anatomical changes in this organ. It alters pulmonary, endocrine and immunological functions, all with adverse effects on health. Some of the complications of obesity include cardiovascular disease, non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, obstructive pulmonary disease, arthritis and cancer. Given the excess mortality, substantial morbidity and the economic toll of obesity, this is a disease that warrants serious attention by the medical community. Obesity’s status and acceptance as a disease is pivotal in determining its treatment, reimbursement for treatment and the development of widespread interventions.

Obes Rev. 2004 Aug;5(3):145-51

Effect of calorie restriction with or without exercise on insulin sensitivity, beta-cell function, fat cell size, and ectopic lipid in overweight subjects.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this article was to determine the relationships among total body fat, visceral adipose tissue (VAT), fat cell size (FCS), ectopic fat deposition in liver (intrahepatic lipid [IHL]) and muscle (intramyocellular lipid [IMCL]), and insulin sensitivity index (S(i)) in healthy overweight, glucose-tolerant subjects and the effects of calorie restriction by diet alone or in conjunction with exercise on these variables. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Forty-eight overweight volunteers were randomly assigned to four groups: control (100% of energy requirements), 25% calorie restriction (CR), 12.5% calorie restriction +12.5% energy expenditure through structured exercise (CREX), or 15% weight loss by a low-calorie diet followed by weight maintenance for 6 months (LCD). Weight, percent body fat, VAT, IMCL, IHL, FCS, and S(i) were assessed at baseline and month 6. RESULTS: At baseline, FCS was related to VAT and IHL (P < 0.05) but not to IMCL. FCS was also the strongest determinant of S(i) (P < 0.01). Weight loss at month 6 was 1 +/- 1% (control, mean +/- SE), 10 +/- 1% (CR), 10 +/- 1% (CREX), and 14 +/- 1% (LCD). VAT, FCS, percent body fat, and IHL were reduced in the three intervention groups (P < 0.01), but IMCL was unchanged. S(i) was increased at month 6 (P = 0.05) in the CREX (37 +/- 18%) and LCD (70 +/- 34%) groups (P < 0.05) and tended to increase in the CR group (40 +/- 20%, P = 0.08). Together the improvements in S(i) were related to loss in weight, fat mass, and VAT, but not IHL, IMCL, or FCS. CONCLUSIONS: Large adipocytes lead to lipid deposition in visceral and hepatic tissues, promoting insulin resistance. Calorie restriction by diet alone or with exercise reverses this trend.

Diabetes Care. 2006 Jun;29(6):1337-44

Kinetic analysis and mechanism on the inhibition of chlorogenic acid and its components against porcine pancreas alpha-amylase isozymes I and II.

Chlorogenic acid (5-caffeoylquinic acid, 5-CQA) is a kind of polyphenol and is richly included in green coffee beans. The inhibitory effects of 5-CQA and its components, caffeic acid (CA) and quinic acid (QA), on the two porcine pancreas alpha-amylase (PPA) isozymes, PPA-I and PPA-II, were investigated using p-nitrophenyl-alpha-D-maltoside as substrate at pH 6.9 and 30 degrees C. The inhibition potencies of the respective inhibitors against both PPA isozymes were almost the same and in the order of 5-CQA > CA >> QA. Their IC(50) values were 0.07-0.08 mM, 0.37-0.40 mM, and 25.3-26.5 mM, respectively. The inhibition mechanisms of 5-CQA and CA were investigated by kinetic analyses, and the inhibitor constants K(i) and K(i)’ (for the free enzyme and enzyme-substrate complex, respectively) were determined. It was indicated that 5-CQA and CA showed mixed-type inhibition with K(i) > K(i)’ against both PPA-I and PPA-II. The binding of PPA-I or PPA-II with 5-CQA or CA was all exothermic and enthalpy-driven. QA is a poor inhibitor, and its inhibitory mode was unique and hardly analyzed by a simple Michaelis-Menten-type interaction between the enzyme and inhibitor. However, it was shown that the inhibitory activity of CA was enhanced 5 times by ester-bond formation with QA in the form of 5-CQA. These results provide us with significant hints for the development of alpha-amylase inhibitors useful for the prevention of diabetes and obesity.

J Agric Food Chem. 2009 Oct 14;57(19):9218-25

Physiological and biochemical metabolism of germinating broccoli seeds and sprouts.

Changes in physiological and biochemical metabolism as well as glucoraphanin and sulforaphane contents of germinating broccoli seeds and sprouts were investigated in this study. Sprout length, root length, and fresh weight increased with germination time. Dry weight varied from 2.5 to 3.0 mg per sprout. A rapid increase in respiratory rate of sprouts occurred between 24 and 36 h of germination and then stayed at a high level. HPLC analysis found that glucoraphanin content increased at the early stage (0-12 h) of germination, decreased to a low value of 3.02 mg/g at 48 h, and then reached the highest value of 6.30 mg/g at 72 h of germination. Sulforaphane content decreased dramatically during the first day of germination, then increased slowly, and reached a high value of 3.38 mg/g at 48 h before declining again.

J Agric Food Chem. 2012 Jan 11;60(1):209-13

Broccoli sprouts: an exceptionally rich source of inducers of enzymes that protect against chemical carcinogens.

Induction of phase 2 detoxication enzymes [e.g., glutathione transferases, epoxide hydrolase, NAD(P)H: quinone reductase, and glucuronosyltransferases] is a powerful strategy for achieving protection against carcinogenesis, mutagenesis, and other forms of toxicity of electrophiles and reactive forms of oxygen. Since consumption of large quantities of fruit and vegetables is associated with a striking reduction in the risk of developing a variety of malignancies, it is of interest that a number of edible plants contain substantial quantities of compounds that regulate mammalian enzymes of xenobiotic metabolism. Thus, edible plants belonging to the family Cruciferae and genus Brassica (e.g., broccoli and cauliflower) contain substantial quantities of isothiocyanates (mostly in the form of their glucosinolate precursors) some of which (e.g., sulforaphane or 4-methylsulfinylbutyl isothiocyanate) are very potent inducers of phase 2 enzymes. Unexpectedly, 3-day-old sprouts of cultivars of certain crucifers including broccoli and cauliflower contain 10-100 times higher levels of glucoraphanin (the glucosinolate of sulforaphane) than do the corresponding mature plants. Glucosinolates and isothiocyanates can be efficiently extracted from plants, without hydrolysis of glucosinolates by myrosinase, by homogenization in a mixture of equal volumes of dimethyl sulfoxide, dimethylformamide, and acetonitrile at -50 degrees C. Extracts of 3-day-old broccoli sprouts (containing either glucoraphanin or sulforaphane as the principal enzyme inducer) were highly effective in reducing the incidence, multiplicity, and rate of development of mammary tumors in dimethylbenz(a)anthracene-treated rats. Notably, sprouts of many broccoli cultivars contain negligible quantities of indole glucosinolates, which predominate in the mature vegetable and may give rise to degradation products (e.g., indole-3-carbinol) that can enhance tumorigenesis. Hence, small quantities of crucifer sprouts may protect against the risk of cancer as effectively as much larger quantities of mature vegetables of the same variety.

Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1997 Sep 16;94(19):10367-72

Protection against UV-light-induced skin carcinogenesis in SKH-1 high-risk mice by sulforaphane-containing broccoli sprout extracts.

Aerobic life, UV solar radiation, genetic susceptibility, and immune status contribute collectively to the development of human skin cancers. In addition to direct DNA damage, UV radiation promotes the generation of reactive oxygen intermediates that can cause oxidative damage and inflammation, and ultimately lead to tumor formation. Treatment of murine and human keratinocytes with the isothiocyanate sulforaphane elevated phase 2 enzymes and glutathione and protected against oxidant toxicity. Topical application of sulforaphane-containing broccoli sprouts extracts induced the phase 2 response in mouse skin in vivo. Sulforaphane inhibited cytokine-dependent (gamma-interferon or lipopolysaccharide) induction of iNOS in RAW 264.7 macrophages. The UV-radiation-induced skin carcinogenesis in “initiated high-risk mice” was substantially inhibited by broccoli sprout extracts containing sulforaphane. After completion of the UV irradiation schedule (30 mJ/cm(2)/session twice a week for 20 weeks), groups of approximately 30 mice were treated topically on their backs (5 days a week for 11 weeks) with broccoli sprout extract containing either the equivalent to 0.3 micromol (low dose) or 1.0 micromol (high dose) sulforaphane, respectively. At this time point, the tumor incidence had reached 100% in the control mice. Tumor burden, incidence, and multiplicity were reduced by 50% in the animals that received the high dose of protector. Tumor incidence and multiplicity did not differ between the low dose-treated and the control groups, but the low dose treatment resulted in a substantial reduction of the overall tumor burden. Thus, topical application of sulforaphane-containing broccoli sprout extracts is a promising strategy for protecting against skin tumor formation after exposure to UV radiation.

Cancer Lett. 2006 Aug 28;240(2):243-52

Induction of the phase 2 response in mouse and human skin by sulforaphane-containing broccoli sprout extracts.

The isothiocyanate sulforaphane was isolated from broccoli extracts in a bioactivity-guided fractionation as the principal and very potent inducer of cytoprotective phase 2 enzymes and subsequently shown to inhibit tumor development in animal models that involve various carcinogens and target organs. Because broccoli and broccoli sprouts are widely consumed, extracts obtained from them are viewed as convenient vehicles for sulforaphane delivery to humans. In relation to our current interest in devising strategies for protection against UV light-induced skin cancer, it was necessary to examine the safety and efficacy of topical application of sulforaphane-containing broccoli sprout extracts as single and multiple doses in both mice and humans. Topical application of an extract delivering 100 nmol sulforaphane/cm(2) increased the protein levels of NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1), glutathione S-transferase A1, and heme oxygenase 1, three representative phase 2 enzymes, in mouse skin epidermis. Quantitative assessment of the activity of NQO1 24 h after dosing showed increases of 1.5- and 2.7-fold after application of single and multiple (thrice, every 24 h) doses, respectively. A dose-escalation safety study in healthy human subjects revealed no adverse reactions when doses as high as 340 nmol of sulforaphane in the form of broccoli sprout extracts were applied topically to the center of a 1-cm-diameter circle drawn on the volar forearm. A subsequent efficacy study showed that despite the interindividual differences in basal levels, the enzyme activity of NQO1 in homogenates of 3-mm full thickness skin punch biopsies increased in a dose-dependent manner, with maximum increases of 1.5- and 4.5-fold after application of 150 nmol doses, once or three times (at 24 h-intervals), respectively, thus providing direct evidence for induction of the phase 2 response in humans.

Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2007 Apr;16(4):847-51

Sulforaphane mobilizes cellular defenses that protect skin against damage by UV radiation.

UV radiation (UVR) is a complete carcinogen that elicits a constellation of pathological events, including direct DNA damage, generation of reactive oxidants that peroxidize lipids and damage other cellular components, initiation of inflammation, and suppression of the immune response. Recent dramatic increases in the incidence of nonmelanoma skin cancers are largely attributable to higher exposure of an aging population to UVR. Therefore, the development of cellular strategies for intrinsic protection of the skin against the deleterious effects of UVR is imperative. Here we show that erythema resulting from UVR is a comprehensive and noninvasive biomarker for assessing UVR damage and can be precisely and easily quantified in human skin. Topical application of sulforaphane-rich extracts of 3-day-old broccoli sprouts up-regulated phase 2 enzymes in the mouse and human skin, protected against UVR-induced inflammation and edema in mice, and reduced susceptibility to erythema arising from narrow-band 311-nm UVR in humans. In six human subjects (three males and three females, 28-53 years of age), the mean reduction in erythema across six doses of UVR (300-800 mJ/cm(2) in 100 mJ/cm(2) increments) was 37.7% (range 8.37-78.1%; P = 0.025). This protection against a carcinogen in humans is catalytic and long lasting.

Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007 Oct 30;104(44):17500-5

Topical beta-carotene is converted to retinyl esters in human skin ex vivo and mouse skin in vivo.

Human epidermis contains endogenous retinoids (retinol and retinyl esters) and carotenoids (mostly beta-carotene). Previous studies have shown that the enzymes involved in retinoid metabolism are present in human epidermis. There is still a controversy about the presence in the skin of the enzymes able to convert beta-carotene into vitamin A (retinol), although a recent study demonstrated the conversion of beta-carotene into retinol in human cultured epidermal cells. In this study, we addressed the question of the possible bioconversion of topical beta-carotene into vitamin A or derivatives by human and mouse skin. Surgically excised human abdominal skin was mounted on Franz perfusion chambers to assess the cutaneous penetration of topical beta-carotene as well as its metabolism, after a 24-h incubation period, whereas hairless mice received topical beta-carotene 24 h before assaying epidermal beta-carotene and retinoid concentrations. Epidermal retinoid and beta-carotene concentrations were determined by high-pressure liquid chromatography. Topical beta-carotene penetrated well into human and mouse epidermis and induced a 10-fold (human) and a threefold (mouse) increase of epidermal retinyl esters, which demonstrates that topical beta-carotene is converted into retinyl esters by human and mouse epidermis and thus appears as a precursor of epidermal vitamin A.

Exp Dermatol. 2004 Sep;13(9):558-61

Interventions for photodamaged skin.

BACKGROUND: Photodamage describes skin changes such as fine and coarse wrinkles, roughness, freckles and pigmentation changes that occur as a result of prolonged exposure to the sun. Many treatments are available to reverse the damage, but it is unclear which work and at what cost in terms of unwanted side effects. OBJECTIVES: To assess the effects of topically applied treatments, tablet treatments, laser and surgical procedures for photodamaged skin. SEARCH STRATEGY: We searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) in The Cochrane Library, Issue 1 2002, MEDLINE (1966-June 2002), EMBASE (1974-June 2002), Health Periodicals (1976-June 2002). We checked references of articles and communicated with authors and the pharmaceutical industry. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomised controlled trials which compared drug or surgical interventions with no treatment, placebo or another drug, in adults with mild, moderate or severe photodamage of the face or forearms. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two reviewers independently extracted data and assessed trial quality. MAIN RESULTS: Thirty studies of variable quality were included. Eight trials showed that topical tretinoin cream, in concentrations of 0.02% or higher, was superior to placebo for participants with mild to severe photodamage on the face and forearms (although losses to follow-up were relatively high in most studies). For example, the relative risk of improvement for 0.05% tretinoin cream, compared to placebo (three studies), at 24 weeks, was 1.73 (95% confidence interval 1.39 to 2.14). This effect was not seen for 0.001% topical tretinoin (one study) or 0.01% (three studies). A dose-response relationship was evident for both effectiveness and skin irritation. One small within-patient study showed benefit from topical ascorbic acid compared with placebo. Tazarotene (0.01% to 0.1%) and isotretinoin (0.1%) both showed significant improvement over placebo for moderate photodamage (one study each). There is limited evidence (one trial), to show that the effectiveness of 0.05% tretinoin, is equivalent to the effects of 0.05% and 0.1% tazarotene. One small study showed greater improvement in upper lip wrinkles with CO2 laser technique compared to Baker’s phenol chemical peel, at 6 months. Three small RCTs comparing CO2 laser with dermabrasion found no difference in wrinkle score at 4 to 6 months, suggesting that both methods are equally efficacious, but more erythema was reported with the laser. The effectiveness of other interventions such as hydroxy acids and natural polysaccharides was not clear. AUTHORS’ CONCLUSIONS: There is conclusive evidence that topical tretinoin improves the appearance of mild to moderate photodamage on the face and forearms, in the short term. However erythema, scaling/dryness, burning/stinging and irritation may be experienced initially. There is limited evidence that tazarotene and isotretinoin benefit patients with moderate photodamage on the face: both are associated with skin irritation and erythema. The effectiveness of other interventions remains uncertain.

Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005 Jan 25;(1):CD001782

Modern approach to topical treatment of aging skin.

The main processes involved in skin aging are intrinsic and extrinsic. Apart from them, so called stochastic aging connotes cell damage caused by metabolic processes, free radicals and cosmic irradiation. The clinical expression of intrinsic aging include smooth, dry, and thinned skin with accentuated expression lines. It is inevitable and time dependent. Extrinsically aged skin shows signs of photodamage which include appearance of wrinkles, pigmented lesions, actinic keratoses and patchy hypopigmentations. Therapeutic modalities imply photoprotection with sunscreens that prevent sunburns and block ultraviolet irradiation. Other modalities include use of retinoids which regulate gene transcription with subsequent cellular differentiation and proliferation. The topical and peroral administration of network antioxidants, such as vitamin E and C, coenzyme Q10, alpha-lipoic acid and glutathione, enhance antiaging effect. The other antioxidants such as green tea, dehydroepiandrosterone, melatonin, selenium and resveratrol, have also antiaging and anti-inflammatory effects. Topical bleaching agents such as hydroquinone, kojic acid and azelaic acid can reduce signs of aging. Studies confirm the efficacy of these topical agents in combination with superficial and/or medium depth or deep peeling agents for photodamaged skin treatment. Indications for type of chemical peels according to various clinical diagnosis are done, as well as advantages and disadvantages of different types of chemical peels.

Coll Antropol. 2010 Sep;34(3):1145-53

Chitosan green tea polyphenol complex as a released control compound for wound healing.

OBJECTIVE: In recent years, oxidative stress has been implicated in a variety of degenerative process and diseases, including acute and chronic inflammatory conditions such as wound healing. Green tea polyphenols have shown anti-oxidant property. The present study discussed the application of chitosan green tea polyphenol complex on the wound healing. METHODS: The wound healing effect of chitosan green tea polyphenol complex was studied in ten-week-old healthy male Sherman rats weighing 150-180 g by two wound models. The rats were randomly chosen and divided into four groups (n=5), administered with distilled water in Group A as control group, epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) in Group B, chitosan-EGCG complex in Group C and chitosan-green tea polyphenols complex in Group D, respectively. In rats’incision wound model, two straight paravertebral incisions were made and skin tensile strength was measured using continuous water flow technology on the 10th day. In rats’excision wound model, wound contraction and period of epithelization were measured. The polyphenols release from the complex was continuously monitored by an elution technique in aqueous solution at different pH values (pH=4, 5, 6, 7). RESULTS: The treatment groups showed significantly enhanced the breaking strength in incision wound (328+/-14.5) g and (421+/-18.5) g compared with control (264+/-16.7) g. In the excision wound model, the wound contraction percentage in treatment groups was relatively increased during the recovery period. Respectively, the percentage of wound contraction ranged from 47.60%+/-2.15% on day 4 to 107.98% +/-1.26% on day 16 compared with control group (8.46%+/-5.42% to 59.80%+/-4.47%). The complex demonstrated a gradual increase in the release rate from the initial stage and slow increase at different pH values. The release rate approximated 0.6-0.7 in the complex and remained stable 6 hours after injury, which may be the end of the release process. CONCLUSIONS: In our study, chitosan polyphenol complex has enhanced the healing of incision wounds by increasing the breaking strength of the wounds. In excision wound model, the complex hastens the period of epithelialization. The study on the optimal release of complex among various pH values could be applied in the wound test, which can lead to a gradually active substance(polyphenols) release and efficient coverage of epithelial layers found in the healing of incision and excision wound.

Chin J Traumatol. 2010 Apr 1;13(2):91-5

Anti-angiogenic effects of epigallocatechin-3-gallate in human skin.

Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) is the main polyphenol component of green tea. This compound exhibits antioxidant, immunomodulatory, photoprotective, anti-angiogenic, and anti-inflammatory properties. We conducted a small randomized, double blind, split face trial using a cream containing 2.5% w/w of EGCG. Four healthy volunteers with significant erythema and telangiectasia on the face applied EGCG cream to one side of the face, and vehicle control cream to the other, twice daily for six weeks. After six weeks, biopsies were taken from EGCG and vehicle treated sites. Immunohistochemistry was used to measure VEGF and HIF-1 α. HIF-1 α expression was decreased in EGCG treated sites, such that 28.4% of the epidermis showed positive staining in vehicle treated vs. 13.8% in EGCG treated sites (p<0.001). A similar decrease in VEGF expression was found (6.7% in EGCG vs. 11.0%in in vehicle-treated skin (p<0.005). EGCG topical treatments influence HIF-1 α induction and VEGF expression and may serve as a potential agent in the prevention of telangiectasias.

Int J Clin Exp Pathol. 2010 Aug 5;3(7):705-9